banking, Management,IPO,underwriter,Histrycal place.

What is investment banking?

2009-11-04T07:01:00.000-08:00

An investment bank is, simply put, an intermediary organization that uses its expertise and financial knowledge to make it possible for companies, institutions and governments to take advantage of business or investment opportunities. It links companies that need money to grow with other companies, institutions or investors willing to provide them with that money via a variety of forms, be it loans, stocks, bonds or hybrid financing arrangements. It also structures these transactions, and is capable of bringing them to market in the case of stock and bond offerings.

An investment bank also uses its financial expertise to provide corporate finance advice, i.e., help its clients manage their business and investment risks, buy other companies, divest themselves of unwanted operations or finance their expansion into new countries or industries. Often, the investment bank will identify opportunities for its clients, using its regional or industry expertise and business contacts.
Investment banks also provide most of these services for governments of all sizes — they help them raise money through bond offerings, assist them in obtaining loans for financing projects and advise them in other financial matters.

Most investment banks also include sales and trading areas, which link investors with the world’s financial markets, including stock (equity) markets, bond (fixed income) markets, derivative markets, foreign exchange, commodities and more. A research area (equity and fixed income) may contribute expertise to these market activities by monitoring companies, industries, market sectors and key economic factors, then providing the investment bank’s traders and clients with information that helps them to invest intelligently.
Investment banks don’t accept deposits or offer loans to individuals. (That is the role of a retail bank.)

How do investment banks raise money?

An investment bank may raise money for it clients in a variety of ways. It may create an investment vehicle and offer it to a small group of sophisticated investors, who commit relatively large amounts of money in what is called a private placement offering. Or an investment bank may work with its commercial banking counterpart to structure a large loan from a consortium of several institutions or large investors (syndicated lending), sometimes by using the client’s assets as collateral (asset-backed financing) or structuring the repayment terms to accommodate the specific cash/flow characteristics of the client and the project being financed (project financing). Keep in mind that these are very simple descriptions of complex financing arrangements that are typically customized to fit each client’s situation.

What is online banking?

2009-11-04T07:00:00.001-08:00

If you're like most people, you've heard a lot about online banking but probably haven't tried it yourself. You still pay your bills by mail and deposit checks at your bank branch, much the way your parents did. You might shop online for a loan, life insurance or a home mortgage, but when it comes time to commit, you feel more comfortable working with your banker or an agent you know and trust.
Online banking isn't out to change your money habits. Instead, it uses today's computer technology to give you the option of bypassing the time-consuming, paper-based aspects of traditional banking in order to manage your finances more quickly and efficiently.

Origin of online banking

The advent of the Internet and the popularity of personal computers presented both an opportunity and a challenge for the banking industry.
For years, financial institutions have used powerful computer networks to automate millions of daily transactions; today, often the only paper record is the customer's receipt at the point of sale. Now that its customers are connected to the Internet via personal computers, banks envision similar economic advantages by adapting those same internal electronic processes to home use.
Banks view online banking as a powerful "value added" tool to attract and retain new customers while helping to eliminate costly paper handling and teller interactions in an increasingly competitive banking environment.

What is an IPO?

2009-11-04T06:58:00.001-08:00

One of the most visible ways an investment bank helps new or private companies raise capital is by sponsoring an Initial Public Offering (IPO), which is the first sale of stock by a company to the public. Exactly when and how a company goes public is given great care and planning by investment bankers. Timing and market positioning are critical to the success of the IPO. An investment bank may also sponsor secondary offerings of stocks or bonds to the public for companies already traded on markets, or help companies structure hybrid investment vehicles to be offered on any of the many different specialized financial markets existing today.

What is an underwriter?

2009-11-04T06:56:00.000-08:00

If an investment bank uses some portion of their own assets as a guarantee to help an entity find investors, this process is known as underwriting. The lead underwriter is the investment bank with the primary responsibility for organizing a stock, bond or syndicated loan or credit issue. It is their job to find other organizations to join the syndicate or underwriting group, to set up all the terms with the company issuing the securities and to evaluate if the time is right and investors are likely to respond favorably to an offering. A lead underwriter is sometimes called the lead manager, managing underwriter or syndicate manager. A book runner is the organization that maintains a record of all the securities or units sold in an offering — a task that requires very strong sales, trading and operational resources. The book runner is usually the lead manager.

Growth Management

2009-11-04T06:54:00.000-08:00

Note that your equity has grown from $6.0 million to $10.5 million due to retained earnings. You have acquired a substantial amount in deposits, some of which are ordinary checking accounts that pay no interest. Others were borrowed at market rates. All deposits whether or not they bear interest have associated costs.
With the additional funds available from deposits, you have redistributed your assets to what you hope will enhance future earnings: $5.0 million in reserves, $7.7 million in T-bills, $1.1 million in loans to other banks, and $110 million in ordinary loans. You project net earnings for the coming year after taxes of $1.51 million. That would be a return on equity of 14.38% and a return on assets of 1.21%, which is quite reasonable performance.
Required Operating Ratios
In the lower left corner of the table are the three ratios that must be kept above minimum values established by bank regulators. The capital ratio is the ratio of a bank’s equity to a risk-weighted sum of the bank's assets. The weightings are 0 for reserves, 0 for government securities, 0.2 for loans to banks, and 1.0 for ordinary loans. A minimum capital ratio of 8% is required.
The leverage ratio is the ratio of a bank's equity to the unweighted sum of its total assets. The required minimum is 3%. The reserve ratio is the ratio of a bank's reserves (deposits at the Fed plus vault cash) to its demand deposits, i.e. checking deposits. The required minimum is 10% for large banks, but only 3% on the first $45.4 million of demand deposits, which is the case for your small bank.
How Transactions Affect Operating Ratios
When a bank issues an ordinary loan, its assets (A) and liabilities (L) increase equally. Its reserves (R) remain unchanged, which results in a decrease in its reserve ratio (R/L). Its equity, i.e. capital (C = A-L) remains unchanged, which results in a decrease in its capital ratio (C/A).
When the borrower spends the funds, assuming they end up in a different bank, R, A, and L decrease equally. Since R is normally a small fraction of L, the reserve ratio decreases by an amount roughly equal to the fractional change in R. Since C is normally a small fraction of A, the capital ratio increases by an amount roughly equal to the fractional change in A.
When the borrower pays interest on the loan out of a deposit within the bank, L decreases while A and R remain unchanged. This results in an increase in both the reserve ratio and the capital ratio. If the borrower pays interest from an outside source, A and R increase while L remains unchanged. This results in an increase in both the reserve ratio and the capital ratio.
When the borrower repays the loan from a deposit within the bank, R remains unchanged while A and L decrease equally. This results in an increase in both the reserve ratio and the capital ratio. If the borrower repays the loan from an outside source, R increases while A and L remain unchanged. This results in an increase in reserve ratio but no change in the capital ratio.
When a bank buys something for itself, it may issue a bank draft in payment. If the recipient deposits the draft in the same bank, he receives a deposit which increases L, while A and R remain unchanged. If he deposits it in another bank, A and R decrease while L remains unchanged. In both cases, the capital ratio and reserve ratio of the issuing bank decrease..

Banking Basics

2009-11-04T06:49:00.000-08:00

A good way to understand how banks work is to imagine starting your own bank. The first thing you need to do is put up some of your own money. You won’t receive a banking license unless you have your own capital at risk.
Getting Started
Let’s assume you raise $6 million in cash with help from other investors. That will be the bank’s initial equity, the owner’s stake. Next you obtain a charter, rent a building, furnish it with all the necessary equipment, hire and train a staff, and open your doors for business.
You’ll need to deposit some of your initial stake at the Fed. Those funds will be used to clear checks written by your own depositors. You’ll also need to keep enough cash in the vault to meet the demand for withdrawals by your depositors. Let's assume initial expenses of $1.2 million. That leaves $4.8 million, of which you allocate $2 million to vault cash and $2.8 million to your Fed account.
Managing Loans and Other Investments
As your business develops, some customers will deposit their own money to open checking accounts. Others will invest in your savings accounts and certificates of deposit (term loans) which must pay a competitive interest rate. Still others will seek loans from the bank. It is up to you to determine whether prospective borrowers are good credit risks, and will be able to pay the interest charges and return the principal on the specified date.
Accounting Needs
In managing your bank, you will need an accounting system to determine how your decisions are likely to affect the bank’s profitability. The most important account is the balance sheet. This shows at any given moment, the bank’s assets (what it owns), its liabilities (what it owes to others), and its net worth (what belongs to the owners). Net worth, or equity, is equal to assets minus liabilities. Your equity should remain positive and preferably growing. If it ever gets too low relative to total assets, your regulator may close the bank.

Department of Population Science and Human Resource Development at Rajshahi University in Bangladesh.

2009-10-05T21:18:00.000-07:00

Welcome to

The Department of Population Science
and Human Resource Development

About the Department

Population Science and Human Resource Development (PSHRD) is a department within the Faculty of Science. Since the establishment in 1996, the department has been integrating a multidisciplinary teaching and research under a vibrant support from the University of Rajshahi as well as the University Grants Commission. The department has strong programmes of research in the demography, human resource development and management, and population health. Other fields of research in which the department is active include business demography, family demography, medical demography and the indirect estimation of fertility and mortality.
The department provides much of the research for the MSc in Population Science and Human Resource Development from a wide range of research. Moreover, the department supports multidisciplinary research works with close collaboration of different national and international organizations.

Prospective Students

Population Science and Human Resource Development is a multidisciplinary subject, involving and understanding of population, demography, statistics, mathematics, economics, reproductive health, family planning, nutrition, sociology, genetics, environment, epidemiology, human growth and development etc. Hence, Population science maintains relationship between population changes and other social, economic, genetic, environmental variables. Our department welcomes students to cope with the challenges of Twenty First Century.

Undergraduate Studies
Each year the department admits 50 students at undergraduate level. For the fulfillment of the degree, coursework, practical and field studies are mandatory for all students. Admission to the programme is very competitive. Student selection mainly depends on the previous academic records and marks secured in the admission test. In the academic year 2008-09, student selection criterions were as follows:
1. Academic Qualifications
(i) Candidates must have at least a total of GPA 7.5 (including fourth subject and atleast GPA 3.5 (including fourth subject) at each of the S.S.C and H.S.C leve. (ii) Students of O and A level must score at least Grade C.
(iii) Candidates must have Mathematics at H.S.C level

2.Admission Test

(i) Written Examination (MCQ)
Subject
Marks

Mathematics
45

English
15

(ii) Score from previous exams
S.S.C + H.S.C
40

Total
100
3. Number of Seats: 50
Admission is highly competitive. In 2008-09, more than 2700 students competed in the admission test only for 50 seats. Our department always welcomes students with high caliber to explore multidimensional knowledge and cutting-edge teaching and research.

Graduate Studies
The DPSHRD offers very attractive courses for Master?s by Coursework and Master?s by Research students. Courses are offered mainly based on needs of employer by covering the practical knowledge in population studies and human resource development. Each year the department admits around 40-50 MSc students of which 10-15 are from thesis group. Students from the MSc Thesis Group are mainly engaged in research; however, they are required to do some course work for the fulfillment of the degree.
Core courses
Advanced Demography
Strategic Human Resource Development
Population and Gender Issues
Business Demography
Population Health
Optional Courses
Epidemiology
Econometrics
Environment and Sustainable Development
Human Growth and Development
Graduate or postgraduate research students are required to conduct research under a close supervision of a faculty member from the department. Research students can manage a co-supervisor with the approval of the main supervisor from some other department within/outside the university to enhance a multidisciplinary high quality research.
Postgraduate Studies
The department has two postgraduate research programmes, MPhil and PhD. Both the MPhil and PhD degrees are research oriented and require significant contribution in the field of population sciences or human resource development. Sometimes fellowships are also available to some qualified graduate/postgraduate research students through some external funding sources. Student can contact the department for funding opportunities like scholarships and fellowships.

petra

2009-09-03T02:37:00.000-07:00

This article is about the Jordanian site of Petra is an archaeological site in the arabah, Ma'an Governorate, jordan, lying on the slope of mount.Hor in a basin among the mountains which form the eastern flank of Arabah (Wadi Araba), the large valley running from the dead sea to the gulf of aqaba. It is renowned for its rock-cut architecture. Petra is also one of the new seven wonders of the world . The nabataeans constructed it as their capital city around 100 BCE.The site remained unknown to the Western world until 1812, when it was introduced to the West by swiss explorer johann ludwig burckhardt. Petra not only possessed the advantages of a fortress, but controlled the main commercial routes which passed through it to gaza in the west, to bosra and damascus in the north, to aqaba and leuce come on the red sea and across the desert to the persian gulf.The end of the Siq, with its dramatic view of al khazneh ("The Treasury").Excavations have demonstrated that it was the ability of the Nabataeans to control the water supply that led to the rise of the desert city, creating an artificial oasis. The area is visited by flash floods and archaeological evidence demonstrates the Nabataeans controlled these floods by the use of dams ,cisterns and water conduits. These innovations stored water for prolonged periods of drought, and enabled the city to prosper from its sale.The TheatreAlthough in ancient times Petra might have been approached from the south via saudi arabia on a track leading around jabal haroun( Aaron's Mountain"), across the plain of Petra, or possibly from the high plateau to the north, most modern visitors approach the site from the east. The impressive eastern entrance leads steeply down through a dark, narrow gorge (in places only 3–4 metres wide) called the siq ("the shaft"), a natural geological feature formed from a deep split in the sandstone rocks and serving as a waterway flowing into wadi musa.At the end of the narrow gorge stands Petra's most elaborate ruin,al khazneh (popularly known as "the Treasury"), hewn into the sandstone cliff.El Deir ("The Monastery").A little further from the Treasury, at the foot of the mountain called en-Nejr, is a massive theatre, so placed as to bring the greatest number of tombs within view. At the point where the valley opens out into the plain, the site of the city is revealed with striking effect. The amphitheatre has been cut into the hillside and into several of the tombs during its construction. Rectangular gaps in the seating are still visible. Almost enclosing it on three sides are rose-colored mountain walls, divided into groups by deep fissures, and lined with knobs cut from the rock in the form of towers. HistoryEvidence suggests that settlements had begun in and around Petra in the eighteenth dynasty of egypt.It is listed in Egyptian campaign accounts and the amarna letters as Pel, Sela or Seir. Though the city was founded relatively late, a sanctuary existed there since very ancient times. Stations 19 through 26 of the stations list of exodus are places associated with Petra. This part of the country was biblically assigned to the horites, the predecessors of the edomites. The habits of the original natives may have influenced the Nabataean custom of burying the dead and offering worship in half-excavated caves. Although Petra is usually identified with sela which also means a rock, the Biblical references refer to it as "the cleft in the rock", referring to its entrance. 2 kings xiv. 7 seems to be more specific. In the parallel passage, however, Sela is understood to mean simply "the rock" (2 Chr. xxv. 12, see LXX).On the authority of josephus.Eusebius and jrome (Onom. sacr. 286, 71. 145, 9; 228, 55. 287, 94) assert that Rekem was the native name and Rekem appears in the dead sea scrolls as a prominent Edom site most closely describing Petra and associated with mount seir. But in the Aramaic versions Rekem is the name of kadesh, implying that Josephus may have confused the two places.Sometimes the Aramaic versions give the form Rekem-Geya which recalls the name of the village El-ji, southeast of Petra. The capital, however, would hardly be defined by the name of a neighboring village.The Semitic name of the city, if not Sela, remains unknown. The passage in diodorus siculus (xix. 94–97) which describes the expeditions which antigonus sent against the Nabataeans in 312 BCE is understood to throw some light upon the history of Petra,but the "petra" referred to as a natural fortress and place of refuge cannot be a proper name and the description implies that the town was not yet in existence.The Rekem Inscription in 1976The only place in Petra where the name "Rekem" occurs was in the rock wall of the Wadi Musa opposite the entrance to the Siq. About twenty years ago the Jordanians built a bridge over the wadi and this inscription is now buried beneath tons of concrete.More satisfactory evidence of the date of the earliest Nabataean settlement may be obtained from an examination of the tombs. Two types may be distinguished: the Nabataean and the greco-roman. The Nabataean type starts from the simple pylon-tomb with a door set in a tower crowned by a parapet ornament, in imitation of the front of a dwelling-house. Then, after passing through various stages, the full Nabataean type is reached, retaining all the native features and at the same time exhibiting characteristics which are partly egyptian and partly greek. Of this type there exist close parallels in the tomb-towers at el-I~ejr in north Arabia, which bear long Nabataean inscriptions and supply a date for the corresponding monuments at Petra. Then comes a series of tombfronts which terminate in a semicircular arch, a feature derived from north syria. Finally come the elaborate façades copied from the front of a roman rmplehowever, all traces of native style have vanished. The exact dates of the stages in this development cannot be fixed. Strangely, few inscriptions of any length have been found at Petra, perhaps because they have perished with the stucco or cement which was used upon many of the buildings. The simple pylon-tombs which belong to the pre-Hellenic age serve as evidence for the earliest period. It is not known how far back in this stage the Nabataean settlement goes, but it does not go back farther than the 6th century BCE.A period follows in which the dominant civilization combines Greek, Egyptian and Syrian elements, clearly pointing to the age of the ptolemies. Towards the close of the 2nd century BCE, when the Ptolemaic and seleucid kingdoms were equally depressed, the Nabataean kingdom came to the front. Under aretas philhellene , (c.85–60 BCE), the royal coins begin. The theatre was probably excavated at that time, and Petra must have assumed the aspect of a hellenistic city. In the reign of aretas 4 philopatris, (9 BCE–CE 40), the fine tombs of the el-I~ejr [?] type may be dated, and perhaps also the great High-place.Urn Tomb Roman ruleIn 106, when cornelius palma was governor of Syria, that part of Arabia under the rule of Petra was absorbed into the roman enpire as part of arabia petraea, becoming capital. The native dynasty came to an end. But the city continued to flourish. A century later, in the time of alexander severus, when the city was at the height of its splendor, the issue of coinage comes to an end. There is no more building of sumptuous tombs, owing apparently to some sudden catastrophe, such as an invasion by the neo-persian power under the sassanid empire. Meanwhile, as palmyra (fl. 130–270) grew in importance and attracted the Arabian trade away from Petra, the latter declined. It seems, however, to have lingered on as a religious centre. Epiphanius of salamis (c.315–403) writes that in his time a feast was held there on december 25 in honor of the virgin chaabou and her offspring dushara (Haer. 51)ReligionThe Nabataeans worshipped the Arab gods and goddesses of the pre-islamic times as well as few of their deified kings. The most famous of these was obodas 1 who was deified after his death. Dushara was the main male god accompanied by his female trinity: uzza ,allat and manah. Many statues carved in the rock depict these gods and goddesses.The Monastery, Petra's largest monument, dates from the first century BCE. It was dedicated to Obodas I and is believed to be the symposium of Obodas the god. This information is inscribed on the ruins of the Monastery (the name is the translation of the Arabic "Ad-Deir").Plan of the Byzantine church, 5th century CE.Christianity found its way to Petra in the 4th century CE, nearly 500 years after the establishment of Petra as a trade center. Athanasius mentions a bishop of Petra (Anhioch. 10) named Asterius. At least one of the tombs (the "tomb with the urn"?) was used as a church. An inscription in red paint records its consecration "in the time of the most holy bishop Jason" (447). After the islamic conquest of 629–632 Christianity in Petra, as of most of Arabia, gave way to Islam. During the first crusade Petra was occupied by baldwin 1 of the kingdom of jerusalem and formed the second fief of the barony of al karak (in the lordship of oultrejordain) with the title Château de la Valée de Moyse or Sela. It remained in the hands of the franks until 1189. It is still a tuitular see of the roman catholic church.According to Arab tradition, Petra is the spot where moses struck a rock with his staff and water came forth, and where Moses' brother, aaron is buried at mount hor, known today as Jabal Haroun or Mount Aaron. The Wadi Musa or "Wadi of Moses" is the Arab name for the narrow valley at the head of which Petra is sited. A mountaintop shrine of Moses' sister Miriam was still shown to pilgrims at the time of Jerome in the fourth century, but its location has not been identified since. Decline El Deir ("The Monastery") in 1839, by david roberts.Petra declined rapidly under Roman rule, in large part due to the revision of sea-based trade routes. In 363 an earthquake destroyed many buildings, and crippled the vital water management system. The ruins of Petra were an object of curiosity in the middle ages and were visited by sultan baibars of Egypt towards the end of the 13th century. The first European to describe them was johann ludwig burckhardt in 1812.Because the structures weakened with age, many of the tombs became vulnerable to thieves, and many treasures were stolen. Petra todayOn december 6,1985, Petra was designated a world hiretage site.In 2006 the design of a Visitor Centre began. The jordan times reported in December 2006 that 59,000 people visited in the two months October and November 2006, 25% fewer than the same period in the previous year.On july 7,2007, Petra was named one of New Open World Corporation's new seven wonders of the world.

Giza Necropolis

2009-09-03T02:31:00.000-07:00

The Pyramid Fields from Giza to Dahshur*UNESCO world heritage sitestate partyegypt.TypeCultural criteriai, iii, viReference.Region**arab states Inscription historyInscription1979 (3rd session)*name as inscribed on world heritage list.**Region as classified by UNESCO.The pyramids of Giza The Great Sphinx partially excavated Aerial photography, taken from eduard spelterini's balloon on November 21, 1904The Giza Necropolis stands on the giza plateau, on the outskirts of cairo,egypt. This complex of ancient monuments includes the three pyramids known as the Great Pyramids, along with the massive sculpture known as the great sphinx. It is located some 8 km (5 mi) inland into the desert from the old town of giza on the nile, some 25 km (15 mi) southwest of Cairo city centre. One of the monuments, the great pyramid of giza, is the only remaining monument of the seven wonders of the ancient world.DescriptionThe Great Pyramids consist of the great pyramid of giza (known as the Great Pyramid and the Pyramid of Cheops), the somewhat smaller pyramid of khafre (or Chephren) a few hundred meters to the south-west, and the relatively modest-sized pyramid of menkaure (or Mykerinos) a few hundred meters further south-west. The great sphinx lies on the east side of the complex, facing east. Current consensus among Egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx is that of Khafre. Along with these major monuments are a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, causeways and valley pyramids. Also associated with these royal monuments are the tombs of high officials and much later burials and monuments (from the new kingdom onwards), signifying the reverence to those buried in the necropolis.Of the four major monuments, only Menkaure's Pyramid is seen today without any of its original polished limestone casing, with Khafre's Pyramid retaining a prominent display of casing stones at its apex, while Khufu's Pyramid maintains a more limited collection at its base. Khafre's Pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu Pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction – it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume. The most active phase of construction here was in the 25th century BC. It was popularised in hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed by antipater of sidon as one of the seven wonders of the world. Today it is the only one of the ancient Wonders still in existence.Due largely to 19th-century images, the pyramids of Giza are generally thought of by foreigners as lying in a remote, desert location, even though they are located in what is now part of the most populous city in Africa .In fact, urban development reaches right up to the perimeter of the antiquities site. The ancient sites in the memphis area, including those at Giza, together with those at saqqara,dahshur,abu ruwaysh, and abusir, were collectively declared a world heritage site in 1979 .The Giza pyramids have been recorded in the Giza Plateau Mapping Project run by ancient egypt research assocates, directed by Dr. mark lehner. In addition, Lehner's team undertook radiocarbon dating on material recovered from the exterior of the Great Pyramid. AERA's 2009 field season was recorded in a blog
. ConstructionMain article: egyptian pyramid construction construction techniques .Researchers have long been impressed with precision with which the pyramids of this complex were created. The base of the great pyramid forms a nearly perfect square, with only a 19-cm (about 7.50-in) difference between its longest and shortest sides, out of a total length of about 230 m (756 ft). This huge square is also almost exactly level. When newly completed, the Great Pyramid rose 146.7 m (481.4 ft)—nearly 50 stories high. The pyramid’s core probably includes a hill of unexcavated rubble, making it impossible to determine its exact number of blocks. Researchers estimate that 2.3 million blocks were used to build the Great Pyramid, with an average weight of about 2.5 metric tons per block. The largest block weighs as much as 15 metric tons.There have been varying theories regarding the construction techniques. Most construction theories are based on the idea that the pyramids were built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place. The disagreements center on the method by which the stones were conveyed and placed. A recent theory proposes that the building blocks were manufactured in-place from a kind of "limestone concrete".The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the pyramids was most likely accomplished by several thousand skilled workers, unskilled laborers and supporting workers—bakers, carpenters, water carriers, and others—were also needed for the project, so that, for instance a total of as many as 35,000 men and women were involved in the Great Pyramid.Many archaeologists and engineers now believe that the pyramid builders were not slaves, as was previously thought, but paid laborers who took great pride in their task.Most were probably farmers, contracted to work for a limited period. Specialists, who were permanently employed by the king, filled the positions that required the most skill—architects, masons, metalworkers, and carpenters.In building the pyramids, the architects developed their techniques over time. They would select a site on a relatively flat area of bedrock—not sand—which provided a stable foundation. After carefully surveying the site and laying down the first level of stones, they constructed the pyramids in horizontal levels, one on top of the other.For the Great Pyramid, most of the stone for the interior was quarried immediately to the south of the construction site. The smooth exterior of the pyramid was made of a fine grade of white limestone that was quarried across the Nile. These exterior blocks had to be carefully cut, transported by river barge to Giza, and dragged up ramps to the construction site. Only a few exterior blocks remain in place at the bottom of the Great Pyramid. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) people took the rest away for building projects in the city of Cairo.To ensure that the pyramid remained symmetrical, the exterior casing stones all had to be equal in height and width. Workers marked all the blocks to indicate the angle of the pyramid wall and trimmed the surfaces carefully so that the blocks fit together. During construction the outer surface of the stone

Machu picchu

2009-09-03T02:29:00.000-07:00

Machu Picchu is a pre-columbian inca site located 2,430 metres (8,000 ft) above sea level. It is situated on a mountain ridge above the urubamba valley in peru, which is 80 kilometres (50 mi) northwest of cuzco and through which the urubamba river flows. Often referred to as "The Lost City of the Incas", Machu Picchu is one of the most familiar symbols of the inca empire.The Incas started building it around AD 1430 but was abandoned as an official site for the Inca rulers a hundred years later at the time of the spanish conquest of the inca empire. Although known locally, it was largely unknown to the outside world before being brought to international attention in 1911 by hiram bingham, an American historian. Since then, Machu Picchu has become an important tourist attraction.Machu Picchu was declared a Peruvian Historical Sanctuary in 1981 and a UNESCO world heritage site in 1983. Since it was not plundered by the Spanish when they conquered the Incas, it is especially important as a cultural site and is considered a sacred place.Machu Picchu was built in the classical Inca style, with polished dry-stone walls. Its primary buildings are the Intihuatana, the Temple of the Sun, and the Room of the Three Windows. These are located in what is known by archaeologists as the Sacred District of Machu Picchu. In September 2007, Peru and yale university reached an agreement regarding the return of artifacts which Hiram Bingham had removed from Machu Picchu in the early twentieth century

Christ the Redeemer

2009-09-03T02:27:00.001-07:00

Christ the Redeemer is a statue of jesus christ in rio de janeiro, brazil . The statue stands 30 metres (98 ft) wide and 38 metres (120 ft) tall with its pedestal. It weighs 635 tons and is located at the peak of the 700 metres (2,300 ft) corcovado mountain in the tijuca forest National Park overlooking the city. It is one of the tallest of its kind in the world. The statue of cristo de la concordia in Cochabamba, Bolivia, is slightly taller, standing at 34.20 metres (112.2 ft) wide and 40.44 metres (132.7 ft) tall with its 6.24 metres (20.5 ft) pedestal. A symbol of christianity, the statue has become an icon of Rio and Brazil. The statue of Christ the Redeemer is a very important symbol of Brazil's Christianity. It is made of reinforced concrete and soapstone .

Chichen itza

2009-09-03T02:25:00.000-07:00

Chichen Itza (pronounced from yucatec maya: Chi'ch'èen Ìitsha"At the mouth of the well of the itza") is a large pre-columbian archaeological site built by the maya civilization located in the northern center of the yucatan peninsula, in the yucatan state, present-day mexico.Chichen Itza was a major regional focal point in the northern Maya lowlands from the late classic through the terminal classic and into the early portion of the early postclassic period. The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, from what is called “Mexicanized” and reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico to the puuc style found among the Puuc Maya of the northern lowlands. The presence of central Mexican styles was once thought to have been representative of direct migration or even conquest from central Mexico, but most contemporary interpretations view the presence of these non-Maya styles more as the result of cultural diffusion.The ruins of Chichen Itza are federal property, and the site’s stewardship is maintained by Mexico’s instituto nacional de antropologia e historia (National Institute of Anthropology and History, INAH). The land under the monuments, however, is privately-owned by the Barbachano family.Contents Name and orthography Feathered Serpent, bottom of "El Castillo" staircaseThe Maya name "Chich'en Itza" means "At the mouth of the well of the Itza." This derives from chi', meaning "mouth" or "edge", and ch'e'en, meaning "well." Itzá is the name of an ethnic-lineage group that gained political and economic dominance of the northern peninsula. The name is believed to derive from the Maya itz, meaning "magic," and (h)á, meaning "water." Itzá in Spanish is often translated as "Brujas del Agua (Witches of Water)" but a more precise translation would be Magicians of WaterThe name is often represented as Chichén Itzá in spanish and when translated into other languages from Spanish to show that both parts of the name are stressed on their final syllables. Other references prefer to employ a more rigorous orthigraphy in which the word is written according to maya language, using Chich'en Itzá (pronounced this form preserves the phonemic distinction between ch' and ch, since the base word ch'e'en (which, however, does have a neutral tone vowel "e" in Maya and is not accented or stressed in Maya) begins with a glottalized affricate. The word "Itzá'" has a high rise final "a" that is followed by a glottal stop (indicated by the apostrophe).There is evidence in the chilam balam books that there was another, earlier name for this city prior to the arrival of the Itza hegemony in northern Yucatán. This name is difficult to define because of the absence of a single standard of orthography, but it is represented variously as Uuc Yabnal, Uuc Hab Nal, or Uc Abnal. While most sources agree the first word means seven, there is considerable debate as to the correct translation of the rest. Among the translations suggested are “Seven Bushes,” “Seven Great Houses,” or “Seven Lines of Abnal.”

Sundarban

2009-09-03T02:16:00.001-07:00

The Sundarbans*UNESCO World Heritage Site State Party Bangladesh,West Bengal (India)Type Natural Criteriaix, xReference Region** Asia Inscription historyInscription1997 (21st Session)* Name as insceibed onWorld Heritage List.** Region as classified by UNESCO.The Sundarbans is the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world.The name Sundarban can be literally translated as "beautiful jungle" or "beautiful forest" in the (Sundar, "beautiful" and bans, "forest" or "jungle"). The name may have been derived from the Sundari trees that are found in Sundarbans in large numbers. Alternatively, it has been proposed that the name is a corruption of Samudraban or Chandra-bandhe (name of a primitive tribe). But the generally accepted view is the one associated with Sundari trees.The forest lies at the feet of the Ganges and is spread across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India, forming the seaward fringe of the delta. The seasonally-flooded Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie inland from the mangrove forests. The forest covers 10,000 km2 of which about 6,000 are in Bangladesh. It became inscribed as a UNESCO world heritage site in 1997, but while the Bangladeshi and Indian portions constitute the same continuous ecotope, these are separately listed in the UNESCO world heritage list as the Sundarbans and Sundarbans National Park, respectively. The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The area is known for the eponymous Royal Bengl Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), as well as numerous fauna including species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and smakes. It is estimated that there are now 500[citation needed] Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area. Sundarbans was designated a Ramsar site on May 21, 1992. The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining forests, together with the Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitat for the endangered tiger. Additionally, the Sundarbans serves a crucial function as a protective flood barrier for the millions of inhabitants in and around Kolkata (Calcutta) against the result of cyclone activity.Contents[hide]1 History 2 Physiography 2.1 Ecoregions 2.2 Climate change impact3 Flora4 Fauna5 Wconomy6 Sanctuaries in Bangladesh7 In popular culture8 See also9 Footnotes and references10 Sources11 External links HistoryDuring the Mughal period, local kings leased the forests of the Sundarbans to residents. The legal status of the forests underwent a series of changes, including the distinction of being the first mangrove forest in the world to be brought under scientific management. The area was mapped by the Surveyor General as early as 1764 following soon after proprietary rights were obtained from the Mughal Emperor,Alamgir II, by the East India Company in 1757. Systematic management of this forest tract started in the 1860s after the establishment of a Forest Department in the Province of Bengal, in India.The first Forest Management Division to have jurisdiction over the Sundarbans was established in 1869. The Sundarbans was declared a reserved forest in 1875-76, under the Forest Act, 1865 (Act VIII of 1865). The first management plan was written for the period 1893-98.In 1875 a large portion of the mangrove forests was declared as reserved forests under the Forest Act, 1865 (Act VIII of 1865). The remaining portions of forests was declared as reserve forest the following year and the forest, which was so far was administered by the civil administration district, was placed under the control of the Forest Department. A Forest Division, which is the basic forest management and administration unit, was created in 1879 with the headquarter in Khulna.In 1911, it was described as a tract of waste country which had never been surveyed, nor had the census been extended to it. It then stretched for about 165 miles (266 km) from the mouth of the Hugli to the mouth of the Meghna and was bordered inland by the three settled districts of the 24 Parganas, Khulna and Backergunje. The total area (including water) was estimated at 6,526 square miles (16,902 km2). It was a water-logged jungle, in which tigers and other wild beasts abounded. Attempts at reclamation had not been very successful. The characteristic tree was the sundari (Heritiera littoralis), from which the name of the tract had probably been derived. It yields a hard wood, used for building, and for making boats, furniture, etc. The Sundarbans were everywhere intersected by river channels and creeks, some of which afforded water communication between Calcutta and the Brahmaputra Valley, both for steamers and for native boats.[edit] Physiography This satellite image shows the forest in the protected area. The Sundarbans appears deep green, surrounded to the north by a landscape of agricultural lands, which appear lighter green, towns, which appear tan, and streams, which are blue.A map of the Indian Sunderbans, showing the boundaries of the protected areas, conservation and lodging centres, subsistence towns, and access pointsThe mangrove-dominated Ganges Delta – the Sundarbans - is a complex ecosystem comprising one of the three largest single tract of mangrove forests of the world. Shared between two neighbouring countries, Bangladesh and India, the larger part (62%)is situated in the southwest corner of Bangladesh. To the south the forest meets the Bay of Bengal; to the east it is bordered by the Baleswar River and to the north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land. The natural drainage in the upstream areas, other than the main river channels, is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and polders. The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of about 16,700 km². Now it has dwindled to about 1/3 of the original size. The total land area today is 4,143 km² (including exposed sandbars: 42 km²) and the remaining water area of 1,874 km² encompasses rivers, small streams and canals. Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt water and freshwater. Thus, it is a region of transition between the freshwater of the rivers originating from the Ganges and the saline water of the Bay of Bengal (Wahid et al.. 2002).The Sundarbans along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation. The physiography is dominated by deltaic formations that include innumerable drainage lines associated with surface and subaqueous levees, splays and tidal flats. There are also marginal marshes above mean tide level, tidal sandbars and islands with their networks of tidal channels, subaqueous distal bars and proto-delta clays and silt sediments. The Sundarbans' floor varies from 0.9 m to 2.11 m above sea level.Biotic factors here play a significant role in physical coastal evolution and for wildlife a variety of habitats have developed including beaches, estuaries, permanent and semi-permanent swamps, tidal flats, tidal creeks, coastal dunes, back dunes and levees. The mangrove vegetation itself assists in the formation of new landmass and the intertidal vegetation plays an important role in swamp morphology. The activities of mangrove fauna in the intertidal mudflats develop micromorphological features that trap and hold sediments to create a substratum for mangrove seeds. The morphology and evolution of the eolian dunes controlled by an abundance of xerophytic and halophytic plants. Creepers and grasses and sedges stabilizes sand dunes and uncompacted sediments.[edit] EcoregionsSundarbans features two ecoregions — "Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests" (IM0162) and Sundarbans mangroves (IM1406).The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests are a tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion of India and Bangladesh. It represents the brackish swamp forests that lie behind the Sundarbans Mangroves where the salinity is more pronounced. The freshwater ecoregion is an area where the water is only slightly brackish and becomes quite fresh during the rainy season, when the freshwater plumes from the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers push the intruding salt water out and also bring a deposit of silt. It covers an area of 14,600 square kilometers (5,600 square miles) of the vast Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta, extending from India's West Bengal state into western Bangladesh. The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie between the upland Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests and the brackish-water Sundarbans mangroves bordering the Bay of bengal.The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining forests, together with the Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitat for the endangered Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris). In addition to the endangered tiger, there are several other threatened mammal species, such as the capped langur (Semnopothecus pileatus), smooth-coated otter (Lutogale perspicillata), Oriental small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea), and great Indian civet (Viverra zibetha). The ecoregion also contains the leopard (Panthera patdus) and several smaller predators such as the jungle cat (Felis chaus), fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), and leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis).This ecoregion is nearly extinct, the victim of large-scale clearing and settlement to support one of the densest human populations in Asia. Hundreds of years of habitation and exploitation by one of the world's densest human populations have exacted a heavy toll of this ecoregion's habitat and biodiversity. There are two protected areas — Narendrapur (110 km2) and Ata Danga Baor (20 km2) that cover a mere 130 km2 of the ecoregion. Habitat loss in this ecoregion is so extensive, and the remaining habitat is so fragmented, that it is difficult to ascertain the composition of the original vegetation of this ecoregion. According to Champion and Seth (1968), the freshwater swamp forests are characterized by Heritiera minor,Xylocarpus molluccensis, Bruguiera conjugata, Sonneratia apetala, Avicennia officinalis, and Sonneratia caseolaris, with Pandanus tectorius, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Nipa fruticans along the fringing banks.The Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregion is the world's largest mangrove ecosystem, with 20,400 square kilometers (7,900 square miles) of area covered. Named after the dominant mangrove species Heritiera fomes, locally known as sundri, it lies in the vast delta formed by the confluence of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers across southern Bangladesh and Indian state of West Bengal. This is the only mangrove ecoregion that harbors the Indo-Pacific region's largest predator, the Bengal Tiger. Unlike in other habitats, here tigers live and swim among the mangrove islands, where they hunt scarce prey such as chital deer (Cervus axis), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), wild pig and even macaques . Mangroves are a transition from the marine to freshwater and terrestrial systems. They provide critical habitat for numerous species of fishes and crustaceans that are adapted to live, reproduce, and spend their juvenile lives among the tangled mass of roots, known as pneumatophores, that grow upward from the anaerobic mud to get the trees' supply of oxygen.Mangroves are not diverse compared with most other terrestrial ecosystems. The undisturbed forests have an unstratified, dense canopy and an undergrowth made up of seedlings and saplings of the canopy trees. In the Sundarbans, the mangrove forests are characterized by Sundari, a species valued for its timber. Other species that make up the forest assemblage include Avicennia spp, Xylocarpus mekongensis,Xylocarpus granatum,Sonneratia apetala, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Cerops decandra , Aegiceras corniculatum, Rhizophora mucronata, and Nypa fruticans palms. Several predators dwell in this labyrinth of channels. Two species of crocodiles — Crocodylus porosus and Crocodylus palustris — dwell here, as well as the Gangetic gavial , and the water monitor lizard use both land and water to hunt and bask in. Sharks and the Gangetic freshwater dolphins inhabit the waterways. And several birds of prey patrol the sky overhead. More cryptic but equally fascinating are the mudskippers, a gobioid fish that climbs out of the water into mudflats and even climbs trees. An abundance of crabs, hermit crabs, and shrimp scavenge among the roots.As Bangladesh supports one of the world's highest human population densities, the population pressure resulted in half of this ecoregion's mangrove forests cut down to supply the fuelwood and other natural resources extracted from these forests by this large population. Despite the intense and large-scale exploitation, the ecoregion still is one of the largest contiguous areas of mangroves in the world. There are seven protected areas — Sajnakhali (2,090 km2), Sundarbans East (210 km2), Char Kukri-Mukri (30 km2), Sundarbans South (200 km2), Sundarbans West (130 km2), Halliday Island (4 km2), Lothian Island (20 km2) — that cover almost 2,700 km2, or 15 percent of the ecoregion. Among these only Sajnakhali is large enough to support a space-dependent species such as the tiger.it Climate change impact Mudflats in SundarbansThe physical development processes along the coast are influenced by a multitude of factors, comprising wave motions, micro and macro-tidal cycles and long shore currents typical to the coastal tract. The shore currents vary greatly along with the monsoon. These are also affected by cyclonic action. Erosion and accretion through these forces maintains varying levels, as yet not properly measured, of physiographic change whilst the mangrove vegetation itself provides a remarkable stability to the entire system. During each monsoon season almost all the Bengal Delta is submerged, much of it for half a year. The sediment of the lower delta plain is primarily advected inland by monsoonal coastal setup and cyclonic events. One of the greatest challenges people living on the Ganges Delta may face in coming years is the threat of rising sea levels caused mostly by subsidence in the region and partly by climate change.In many of the Indian mangrove wetlands, freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the late 19th century due to diversion of freshwater in the upstream area. Also, the Bengal Basin is slowly tilting towards the east due to neo-tectonic Himalayas or a 'greenhouse' induced rise in sea level have aggravated floods in Bangladesh"; however, a 2007 report by UNESCO, "Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage" has stated that an anthropogenic 45-cm rise in sea level (likely by the end of the 21 st century , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of 75% of the Sundarbans mangroves. Flora Sundari treeThe Sundarbans flora is characterized by the abundance of Heritiera fomes, Excoecaria agallocha, Ceriops decandra and Sonneratia apetala. A total 245 genera and 334 plant species were recorded by David prain in 1903. Since Prain’s report there have been considerable changes in the status of various mangrove species and taxonomic revision of the man-grove flora. However, very little exploration of the botanical nature of the Sundarbans has been made to keep up with these changes. Whilst most of the mangroves in other parts of the world are characterized by members of the Rhizophoraceae, Avicenneaceae or Laganculariaceae, the mangroves of Bangladesh are dominated by the Sterculiaceae and Euphorbiaceae.The Bangladesh mangrove vegetation of the Sundarbans differs greatly from other non-deltaic coastal mangrove forest and upland forests associations. Unlike the former, the Rhizophoraceae are of minor importance. Differences in vegetation have been explained in terms of freshwater and low salinity influences in the Northeast and variations in drainage and siltation. The Sundarbans has been classified as a moist tropical forest demonstrating a whole mosaic of seres, comprising primary colonization on new accretions to more mature beach forests, often conspicuously dominated by Keora and tidal forests. Historically three principal vegetation types have been recognized in broad correlation with varying degrees of water salinity, freshwater flushing and physiography and which are represented in the wildlife sanctuaries:Sundari and Gewa occur prominently throughout the area with discontinuous distribution of Dhundul and Kankra. Among grasses and Palms, poresia coaractata,Myriostachya wightiana are well distributed. Keora is an indicator species for newly accreted mudbanks and is an important species for wildlife, especially spotted deer. Besides the forest, there are extensive areas of brackish and freahwater marshes,intertidal mudglats, with typical dune vegetation, open grassland on sandy soils and raised areas supporting a variety of terrestrial shrubs and trees.Succession is generally defined as the successive occupation of a site by different plant communities. In an accreting mudflats the outer community along the sequence represents the pioneer community which is gradually replaced by the next community representing the seral stages and finally by a climax community typical of the climatic zone. Troup suggested that succession began in the newly accreted land created by fresh deposits of eroded soil.The pioneer vegetation on these newly accreted site is followed by Avicennia and Nypa. As the ground is elevated as a result of soil deposition, other trees make their appearance. The most prevalent, though one of the late species to appear, is Excoecaria. As the level of land rises through accretion and the land is only occasionally flooded by tides, Heritiera fomes begins to appear. Fauna Chital are widely seen in the SundarbansA crocodile at SundarbansA Royal Bengal tiger .The Sundarbans is very rich in wildlife. The management of wildlife is presently restricted to the protection of fauna from poaching and designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of forest produce is allowed and the wildlife face few disturbances. Although the fauna of Bangladesh have diminished in recent times and the Sundarbans has not been spared from this decline, the mangrove forest retains several good wildlife habitats and their associated fauna. Of these the tiger and dolphin are target species for planning wildlife management and tourism development. There are high profile and vulnerable mammals living in two contrasting environments and their statuses and management are strong indicators of the general condition of wildlife and its management. The Sundarbans were home to approximately 500 Bengal tigers in 2004, one of the largest single populations of tigers.Blue-eared Kingfisher sighted in the Sundarbans.The Sundarbans provide a unique ecosystem and wildlife habitat. The river terrapin , Indian flap-shelled turtle , peacock soft-shelled turtle , yellow monitor , water monitor , Indian python and the Bengal tiger are some of the resident species. Some of these species are protected by legislation, notably by the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). Some species such as hog deer, water buffalo , swamp deer , Javan rhinoceros , single horned rhinoceros and the mugger crocodilehave become extinct in the Sundarbans at the beginning of the last century.Recent studies revealed that the Bangladesh Sundarbans support diverse biological resources including at least 120 species of commercially important fishes, 270 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and eight amphibian species. This represents a significant proportion of the species present in Bangladesh (i.e. about 30% of the reptiles, 37% the birds and 34% of the mammals) and includes a large number of species which are now extinct elsewhere in the country. Two amphibians, 14 reptiles, 25 aves and five mammals are presently endangered.The Sundarbans is an important wintering area for migrant water birds and is an area suitable for watching and studying avifauna.The Sundarbans were home to approximately 500 Bengal tigers in 2004, one of the largest single population of tigers. Tiger attacks are frequent in the Sundarbans. Between 100 and 250 people are killed per year. However, owing to various measures taken for safety, there have been no reports of deaths since 2004 in the Indian portion of the Sundarbans.See also:Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans Economy Fishing boat in the Sundarbans Logging boat in the SundarbansFerry boat in the SundarbansThe Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation.The Sundarbans play an important role in the economy of the southwestern region of Bangladesh as well as in the national economy. It is the single largest source of forest produce in the country. The forest provides raw material for wood based industries. In addition to traditional forest produce like timber, fuelwood, pulpwood etc., large scale harvest of non wood forest products such as thatching materials, honey, bees-wax, fish, crustacean and mollusk resources of the forest takes place regularly. The vegetated tidal lands of the Sundarbans also function as an essential habitat, nutrient producer, water purifier, nutrient and sediment trap, storm barrier, shore stabilizer, energy storage unit and aesthetic attraction.The forest also has immense protective and productive functions. Constituting 51% of the total reserved forest estate of Bangladesh it contributes about 41% of total forest revenue and accounts for about 45% of all timber and fuel wood output of the country (FAO 1995). A number of industries (e.g. newsprint mill, match factory, hardboard, boat building, furniture making) are based on the raw material obtained from the Sundarbans ecosystem. Various non-timber forest products and plantations help generate considerable employment and income generation opportunities for at least half a million poor coastal population. Besides production functions of the forest, it provides natural protection to life and properties of the coastal population in cyclonr prone Bangladesh.Despite human habitations and economic exploitation of the forest, Sundarbans retained a forest closure of about 70% according to the Overseas Development Administration (ODA) of the United Kingdom in 1985.Forest inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main commercial mangrove species — sundari and gewa (Excoecaria agallocha) — by 40% and 45% respectively between 1959 and 1983 (Forestal 1960 and ODA 1985). Also, despite a total ban on all killing or capture of woldlife other than fish and some invertebrates, there appears to be a pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species (notably at least six mammals and one important reptile this century), and that the "ecological quality of the original mangrove forest is declining" (IUCN 1994)Sanctuaries in Bangladesh A Panaroma atop an observation post at Hiron Point Wild Life Sanctuary, Khulna Range, BangladeshThe Bangladesh part of the Sundarbans is estimated to be about 4,110 km², of which about 1,700 km² is occupied by waterbodies in the forms of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few meters to several kilometers. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every corner of the forest accessible by boat. The forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai , Sarankhola, Khulna, and Burigoalini ,Satkhira and has sixteen forest stations. It is further divided into fifty-five compartments and nine blocks. new Khulna Forest Circle to preserve the forest was created in 1993 and a Conservator of Forests has been posted. The direct administrative head of the Division is the Divisional Forest Officer who is also based at Khulna. The Divisional Forest Officer has a number of professional, subprofessional and support staff and logistic supports for the implementation of necessary management and administrative activities. The basic unit of management is the compartment. There are 55 compartments in four Forest Ranges and these are clearly demarcated mainly by natural features such as rives, canals and creeks.There are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). These are:Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary: Extends over an area of 31,227 ha. Freshwater and Sundri dominate interspersed with Gewa and Passur with Kankra occurring in areas subject to more frequent flooding. There is an understory of Shingra where, soils are drier and Amur in wetter areas and Goran in more saline places. Nypa palm widespread along drainage lines.Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary: Extends over an area of 36,970 ha. There is evidently the greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels and possibly represents an area of relatively longer duration of moderate salinity where Gewa is the dominant woody species. It is often mixed with Sundri, which is able to displace in circumstances such as artificially opened canopies where Sundri does not regenerate as effectively. It is also frequently associated with a dense understory of Goran and sometimes Passur.Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary: Extends over an area of 71,502 ha. Includes areas which support sparse Gewa and dense stands of Goran and discontinuous patches of Hantal palm on drier ground and river banks and levees.In popular cultureThe Sundarbans has been celebrated in numerous Bengali and Indian English novels, songs, and film.The Bengali folk epic Manasamangal mentions Netidhopani and has some passages set in the Sunderbans during the heroine Behula's quest to bring her husband Lakhindar back to life. Sundarbaney Arjan Sardar, a novel by Shibshankar Mitra, and Padma Nadir Majhi, a novel by Manik Bandopadhyay, are based on the rigors of lives of villagers and fishermen in the Sunderbans region, and are woven into the Bengali psyche to an extent. Part of the plot of Salman Rushdie's Booker Prize winning novel,Midnight's Children is also set in the Sundarbans. Most of the plot of prize-winning anthropologist Amitav Ghosh's 2004 novel, The Hungry Tide, is set in the Sundarbans.The Sunderbans has been the subject of numerous non-fiction books, including the The Man-Eating Tigers of Sundarbans by Sy Montegomery for a young audience, which was shortlisted for the Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's book award. The area provides the setting for several novels by Emilio Salgari. Padma Nadir Majhi was also made into a movie by Goutam ghose. Numerous documentary movies have been made about the Sunderbans, including the 2003 IMAX production about the Begal tiger-shining bright.

Cox's bazar

2009-09-03T02:12:00.000-07:00

Cox's Bazar is a town, a fishing port and district headquarter in Bangladesh. It is known for its wide sandy beach which is claimed to be the world's longest natural sandy sea beach.It is an unbroken 125 km sandy sea beach with a gentle slope. Since the rise and fall of the tide here is not great, it is a good place for sea bathing. It is located 150 km south of Chittagong. Cox’s Bazar is also known by the name "Panowa", the literal translation of which means "yellow flower". Its other old name was "Palongkee". The modern Cox's Bazar derives its name from Captain Cox (died 1799), an officer serving in British India. In the 18th century, an officer of British East India Company, Captain Hiram Cox was appointed as the Superintendent of Palongkee outpost after Warren Hastings became the Governor of Bengal. Captain Cox pie was specially mobilized to deal with a century long conflict between Arakan refugees and local Rakhains. The Captain was a compassionate soul and the plight of the people touched his heart. He embarked upon the mammoth task of rehabilitating refugees in the area, and made significant progress. A premature death took Captain Cox in 1799 before he could finish his work. But the work he had done earned him a place in the hearts of the locals and to commemorate his role in rehabilitation work a market was established and named after him as Cox's Bazaar ("Cox's Market"). Although Cox's Bazar is one of the most visited tourist destinations in Bangladesh, it has yet to become a major international tourist destination, due to lack of publicity

Colosseum

2009-09-03T02:08:00.000-07:00

For other uses, see For other uses, see Colosseum (disambiguation).ColosseumLocation IV Templum Pacis (Latin, "Temple of peace") Built in1st century ADBuilt by/for Vespsian, Titus Type of structure Amphitheatre Related articles{{{wiki articles}}}The ColosseumThe Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the center of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96). The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).Capable of seating 50,000 spectators, the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles. As well as the gladiatorial games, other public spectacles were held there, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.It has been estimated that about 500,000 people and over a million wild animals died in the Colosseum games.Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined due to damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome and its breakthrough achievements in earthquake engineering. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession around the various levels of the amphitheatre.The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version (disambiguation).ColosseumLocation IV Templum Pacis (Latin, "Temple of peace") Built in1st century ADBuilt by/for Vespsian, Titus Type of structure Amphitheatre Related articles{{{wiki articles}}}The ColosseumThe Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the center of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96). The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).Capable of seating 50,000 spectators, the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles. As well as the gladiatorial games, other public spectacles were held there, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.It has been estimated that about 500,000 people and over a million wild animals died in the Colosseum games.Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined due to damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome and its breakthrough achievements in earthquake engineering. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession around the various levels of the amphitheatre.The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version

Taj mahal

2009-09-03T01:46:00.000-07:00

The mausoleum of the Taj MahalThe Taj Mahal located in agra India, built by mugal emperor shah jahan in memory of his favorite wife,mumtaz mahal .The Taj Mahal (also "the Taj") is considered the finest example of mugal architecture, a style that combines elements from persian,India, and Islamic architectural styles. In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World heritage site and was cited as "the jewel of muslim artin India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage."While the white domed marble mausoleum is its most familiar component, the Taj Mahal is actually an integrated complex of structures. Building began around 1632 and was completed around 1653, and employed thousands of artisans and craftsmen The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under imperial supervision including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan, and ustad ahmad lahauri Lahauri is generally considered to be the principal designer.

Shah jahan, who commissioned the Taj Mahal -"Shah jahan on a globe" from the smithsoniam Institution .Artistic depiction of Mumtaz mahal In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the mughal empire's
period of greatest prosperity, was griefstricken when his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal, died during the birth of their fourteenth child,Gauhara begum . Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632, one year after her death The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1648 and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later. Emperor Shah Jahan himself described the Taj in these words
Should guilty seek asylum here,Like one pardoned, he becomes free from sin.Should a sinner make his way to this mansion,All his past sins are to be washed away.The sight of this mansion creates sorrowing sighs;And the sun and the moon shed tears from their eyes.In this world this edifice has been made;To display thereby the creator's glory.The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of persian architecture
and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timuridand Mughal buildings including; the gur-e amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in samarkand Humayun's Tomb,Itmad-Ud-Daulah's tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own jama masjid in Delhi . While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones, and buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.ArchitectureThe tombThe central focus of the complex is the tomb. This large, white marble structure stands on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, basic elements are Persian in origin.The Taj Mahal seen from the banks of river YamunaThe base structure is essentially a large, multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners, forming an unequal octagon that is approximately 55 meters on each of the four long sides. On each of these sides, a massive pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan with two similarly shaped, arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is the most spectacular feature. Its height of around 35 meters is about the same as the length of the base, and is accentuated as it sits on a cylindrical "drum" of about 7 metres high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome). The top is decorated with a lotus design, which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasised by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial,which mixes traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements.The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon , a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward. Because of its placement on the main spire, the horns of the moon and the finial point combine to create a trident shape, reminiscent of traditional Hindu symbols of shiva.The minarets, which are each more than 40 meters tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets — a traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that, in the event of collapse, (a typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period) the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.Base, dome, and minaretFinialMain iwan and side pishtaqsSimplified diagram of the Taj Mahal floor planExterior decoration Calligraphy on large pishtaqThe exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest to be found in Mughal architecture.[citation needed] As the surface area changes the decorations are refined proportionally. The decorative elements were created by applying paint,stucco , stone inlays, or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs.Throughout the complex, passages from the qur'an are used as decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan. The texts refer to themes of judgment and include:surah 91 – the sun Surah 112 – the pueity of faith Surah 89 – day break Surah 93 – morning light Surah 95 – the fig Surah 94 –the solace Surah 36 –ya sin Surah 81 – the folding up rah 82 –the cleaving asunder asunder Surah 84 – the rsnding asunder Surah 98 –the evidence Surah 67 –dominion Surah 48 –victory Surah 77 –those sent forth Surah 39 –the crowdsThe calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with youThe calligraphy was created by the Persian calligrapher Abd ul-Haq, who came to India from shiraz Iran, in 1609. Shah Jahan conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" upon him as a reward for his "dazzling virtuosity". Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi. Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script, made of jasper or black marble, inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms.Herringbone inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting colour, creating geometric patterns of considerable complexity. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.On the lower walls of the tomb there are white marble dados that have been sculpted with realistic bas relif depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings and the dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and leveled to the surface of the walls.HerringbonePlant motifsSpandrel detailIncised paintingInterior decoration Jali screen surrounding the cenotaphs Tombs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal Cenotaphs, interior of Taj MahalThe interior chamber of the Taj Mahal steps far beyond traditional decorative elements. Here, the inlay work is not pietra dura but lapidary of precious and semiprecious grmstones. The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face, although only the south garden-facing door is used. The interior walls are about 25 metres high and topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings which are covered by chattris at the corners. Each chamber wall has been highly decorated with dado bas relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels, reflecting in miniature detail the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex. The octagonal marble screen or jali which borders the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels which have been carved through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces have been inlaid in extremely delicate detail with semiprecious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers.Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves and hence Mumtaz and Shah Jahan are laid in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right and towards Mecca. Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaoph is placed at the precise center of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 meters by 2.5 meters. Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on slightly taller base, again decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him. On the lid of this casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box. The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating men's and women's caskets respectively. Ninety Nine Names of God are to be found as calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, in the crypt including "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... ". The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; "He traveled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab , in the year 1076 Hijri ."Arch of JaliDelicate pierce workInlay detailDetail of JaliThe garden Walkways beside reflecting poolThe complex is set around a large 300-meter square charbagh or Mughal garden . The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. A raised marble water tank at the center of the garden, halfway between the tomb and gateway with a reflecting pool on a north-south axis, reflects the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar, in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains The charbagh garden, a design inspired by persian garden , was introduced to India by the first Mughal emperor, Babur. It symbolizes the four flowing rivers of jannah (Paradise) and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning 'walled garden'. In mystic Islamic texts of Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east.Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the center. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological survey of India is that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise The similarity in layout of the garden and its architectural features with the shalimar gardens suggest that they may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan. Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses,daffodils, and fruit trees. As the Mughal Empire declined, the tending of the garden also declined, and when the British took over the management of Taj Mahal during the time of the British Empirethey changed the landscaping to resemble that of lawns of londonOutlying buildings The Great gate (Darwaza-i rauza)—gateway to the Taj MahalThe Taj Mahal complex is bounded on three sides by crenellated red sandstone walls, with the river-facing side left open. Outside the walls are several additional mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favorite servant. These structures, composed primarily of red sandstone, are typical of the smaller Mughal tombs of the era. The garden-facing inner sides of the wall are fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical of Hindu tenples which was later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wall is interspersed with domed chattris, and small buildings that may have been viewing areas or watch towers like the Music House, which is now used as a museum.The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble which is reminiscent of Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. It utilizes bas-relief and pietra dura inlaid decorations with floral motifs. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs, like those found in the other sandstone buildings of the complex.Arches in the Taj Mahal Mosque interior Taj Mahal mosque or masjidAt the far end of the complex, there are two grand red sandstone buildings that are open to the sides of the tomb. Their backs parallel the western and eastern walls, and the two buildings are precise mirror images of each other. The western building is a mosque and the other is the jawab (answer), whose primary purpose was architectural balance, although it may have been used as a guesthouse. The distinctions between these two buildings include the lack of mihrab (a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca) in the jawab and that the floors of jawab have a geometric design, while the mosque floor was laid with outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosque's basic design of a long hall surmounted by three domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly to his Masjid-Jahan Numa, or jama masjid , Delhi . The Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas, with a main sanctuary and slightly smaller sanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an enormous vaulting dome. These outlying buildings were completed in 1643.Construction Ground layout of the Taj MahalThe Taj Mahal was built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra. Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a large palace in the center of Agra in exchange for the land. An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and leveled at 50 meters above riverbank. In the tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of the tomb. Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle. According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks taken from the scaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight. A fifteen kilometer tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the blocks on specially constructed wagons. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex.The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion". For example, the mausoleum itself was essentially complete by 1643, but work continued on the rest of the complex. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to be about 32 million Rupees at that time.The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia and over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials. The translucent white marble was brought from Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.Artist's impression of the Taj Mahal, from the Smithsonian InstitutionA labour force of twenty thousand workers was recruited across northern India. Sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia, inlayers from southern India, stonecutters from Baluchistan, a specialist in building turrets, another who carved only marble flowers were part of the thirty-seven men who formed the creative unit. Some of the builders involved in construction of Taj Mahal are:Ismail Afandi (a.ka. Ismail Khan) of the Ottoman Empire — designer of the main dome. Ustad Isa and Isa Muhammad Effendi of Persia — trained by Koca Mimar Sinan Agha of the Ottoman Empire and frequently credited with a key role in the architectural design.'Puru' from Benarus, Persia — has been mentioned as a supervising architect.Qazim Khan, a native of Lahore - cast the solid gold finial.Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi — the chief sculptor and mosaicist.Amanat Khan from Shiraz, Iran — the chief calligrapher.Muhammad Hanif — a supervisor of masonsMir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shiraz — handled finances and management of daily production.History Taj Mahal by Samuel Borune, 1860.Protective wartime scaffoldingSoon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoluem next to his wife.By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen badly into disrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the Taj Mahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, who chiseled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a massive restoration project, which was completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modeled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodeled with British-style lawns that are still in place today.In 1942, the government erected a scaffolding in anticipation of an air attack by German Luftwaffe and later by Japanese Air Force. During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffoldings were again erected to mislead bomber pilots. More recent threats have come from enveronmental pollution on the banks of Yamuna River including acid rain due to the Mathura oil refinery, which was opposed by Supreme Court of India directives. The pollution has been turning the Taj Mahal yellow. To help control the pollution, the Indian government has set up the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ), a 10,400 square kilometer (4,015 square mile) area around the monument where strict emissions standards are in place. In 1983, the Taj Mahal was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Tourism Then President of Russia Vladimir putin and wife Lyudmila putina visiting the Taj Mahal in 2000.The Taj Mahal attracts from 2 to 4 million visitors annually, with more than 200,000 from overseas. Most tourists visit in the cooler months of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed near the complex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an electric bus. The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently being restored for use as a new visitor center. The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, originally was constructed with caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workmen. Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World, a recent poll with 100 million votes.The grounds are open from 6 am to 7 pm weekdays, except for Friday when the complex is open for prayers at the mosque between 12 pm and 2 pm. The complex is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two days before and after, excluding Fridays and the month of Ramzan. For security reasons only five items—water in transparent bottles, small video cameras, still cameras, mobile phones and small ladies' purses—are allowed inside the Taj Mahal.MythsEver since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument.jean-Baptiste Tavernier, one of the first European visitors to the Taj MahalA longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble across the Yamuna river. The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before it could be built. Ruins of blackened marble across the river in Moonlight Garden, Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend. However, excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had turned black. A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Moonlight Garden. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself.No evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design. Similar claims are made for many famous buildings. No evidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort.In 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P.N.Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal. Oak claimed that origins of the Taj, together with other historic structures in the country currently ascribed to Muslim sultans pre-date Muslim occupation of India and thus, have a Hindu origin. A more poetic story relates that once a year, during the rainy season, a single drop of water falls on the cenotaph, as inspired by Rabindranath Tagore's description of the tomb as "one tear-drop...upon the cheek of time". Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bang